Conspiracy theory, conspiracy theorists, fake news - what's behind it all?

The terms "conspiracy theory" and "conspiracy theorist" have been used frequently in the media and public debates in recent years. This is not equally the case in all Western countries. In some countries, these or similar terms are used with the aim of restricting the formation of opinion.
When a representation or an entire subject area is labelled a conspiracy theory, the intention is to express contempt and disdain for both the topic or viewpoint in question and the people who deal with it. It sends the message: "These people and their representations and views are dubious and nonsensical!"

Meanwhile, for those who want to use this term to stigmatise others or present a thesis as implausible, "theory" is too weak in its pejorative effect. So now terms such as "conspiracy narrative", "conspiracy ideology", "conspiracy fantasy", "conspiracy myths" or even "rubbish narrator" or similar are also used.
Leading media, leading politicians of the established parties as well as publicists, academics and non-governmental organisations (NGO: abbreviation of the internationally used English term) use these terms to devalue. Obviously, this method of stigmatisation is used to defend certain narratives or dogmas in order to prevent them from being questioned.
The topics and areas of life affected by this are becoming more numerous; the taboo zones for thinking and expressing opinions are being expanded by means of such methods.
This method is a modern form of censorship: citizens are allowed to say anything, but not with impunity. Increasingly, you have to expect consequences if you deal with or question certain issues in the "wrong way": citizens who step out of line sometimes have to reckon with blocked social media channels, loss of reputation, social, professional or even legal measures as consequences.

A serious examination of the history and origins of "conspiracy theories" and the use of this term requires that we go back into history. Only an examination of earlier events and methods can explain what is happening today. As is so often the case, it is necessary to go into the background in order to understand what is happening today.

Due to the scope of the topic, the article is divided into three parts.

Contents

Part 1
"Conspiracy theory": origin of a term and its use
Where does the term "conspiracy theory" come from?
Who are conspiracy theorists?
What is labelled a conspiracy theory today?
What favours the emergence of conspiracy theories

Part 2
Conspiracy theory, conspiracy theorists, fake news - origins, distinctions and significance
Today, the USA is often seen as the origin and hotspot of conspiracy theories - for obvious reasons
An example from the early days of the USA
Several examples from the recent past
"Conspiracy theories" arising from mistrust of the government, military and intelligence services
The mood in the USA

Part 3
Internationally disseminated or discussed "conspiracy theories"
Why conspiracy theories arise
A conspiracy theory fills a gap
Not only in the USA - mistrust and "conspiracy theories" are now becoming increasingly widespread throughout the Western world
Preliminary conclusion: The different types of conspiracy theories briefly categorised
Fighting words against the expression of opinion and free thinking
What this has to do with Donald Trump
Conclusion and evaluation

Part 1

"Conspiracy theory": origin of a term and its use

Where does the term "conspiracy theory" come from?

The philosopher Karl Popper (born 1902 in Vienna, died 1994 in London) used in his book 'The open society and its enemies' Volume 2, 'False Prophets: Hegel, Marx and the Consequences' (written in New Zealand, published in English 1945, in German 1958) the concept of "Conspiracy theory of society". In doing so, he largely gave the term conspiracy theory the meaning it has today. The term "Conspiracy Theory" (English for "conspiracy theory") has a different meaning and can be found in the 'Oxford English Dictionary' several decades before the publication of Popper's book, mainly in a legal context.

Following the reporting on the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy in 1963, the term "conspiracy theory" gained currency in the USA. At that time, the term was used to dispel mistrust and plausible doubts about the official accounts of the assassination and the perpetrators, which, as is well known, has not been fully successful to this day.
Since this time, explanations and interpretations of major events have been labelled as conspiracy theories, primarily in the USA, which identify a group or institution that may be acting in conspiracy for a specific purpose. These conspirators therefore have an interest in the event, which can be placed in a larger context if necessary, and they have the means to plan and implement conspiratorial behaviour in advance.

In the USA in particular, there had long been a considerable mistrust of politics and business groups as well as exceptionally wealthy families - i.e. the ruling elite.

Who are conspiracy theorists?

As will be explained below, these questions cannot be answered simply and in general terms. Conspiracy theorists can operate in different places or positions. For decades, the term "conspiracy theory" has been applied to critical citizens or publicists who doubt official accounts and who appear with counterstatements to government and media (officially disseminated) statements.

However, the authors and earlier creators of proven conspiracy narratives and similar claims can be identified elsewhere: Governments or Pro-government circles develop conspiracy theories (allegations, insinuations) and put them out into the world. And this has demonstrably been done many times.
In doing so, they make use of the various distribution channels available to them. In the past, these were media houses, large press publishers, press agencies, radio stations and, of course, press conferences, which can be used by influential politicians and lobbyists. Today, other dissemination options are being added.

Press, media companies in general can also be authors or at least spread conspiracy claims. These cases often existed in the past, in the time before the Internet.
Since the spread of the internet, the situation has obviously become more complex, more flexible, and the emergence and spread of conspiracy theories and counter-narratives to the official narrative is happening at breakneck speed. Bloggers, suspicious citizens, imaginative minds, investigative journalists, publicists, scientists, whistleblowers, opposition activists of various kinds, fraudsters and confused personalities... since around the year 2000, all these people and groups have been able to disseminate their research, findings, assumptions and attempts at explanation, insinuations, fantasies or even delusional ideas, discuss them with numerous others and inspire each other.

And if all this seems frightening, it doesn't necessarily have to be a disadvantage. However, on the one hand, the Internet makes the situation more confusing, much more diverse and more complex. On the other hand - and this is crucial: it is much more difficult for the ruling elites and the large media groups to spread their own narratives and stories and effectively consolidate them in the public sphere in order to manipulate the masses (almost without resistance). Counter-narratives and opposing opinions immediately emerge on the internet and various social media, with specific events often underlined by mobile phone videos and eyewitnesses. The concealment and omission of information or one-sided, manipulative representations also come to the attention of some citizens more quickly - leading media are thus put under pressure. We have noticed this more frequently in Germany in recent years. The digital media therefore also fulfil an important task.

As a result, these are Internet in general and various Social media in particular to the Enemy image of leading politicians and Media groups have become. For the established, large media companies, the digital media not only represent economic competition, but also incalculable competition in terms of content presentation and opinion-forming. The "old media" and the leading elites (of the Western world), who are often closely associated with them, are no longer getting through to a large number of citizens with their widespread dogmas and narratives in the way they used to. In many areas, the majority no longer follow them and increasingly distrust the previously dominant media.

What is labelled a conspiracy theory today?

Conspiracy theorists" or "conspiracy narrators" as well as "aluminium hat wearers" and so on are people who hold views that clearly contradict the explanations, representations and dogmas of the Western ruling elites and contradict their explanatory patterns. (The definition of the increasingly controversial term "elite" will not be discussed here). This will initially be considered irrespective of whether this view or representation is factual, logical, comprehensible and source-based or whether it is confused, irrational, contradictory and cannot be factually substantiated.

Views or even detailed, factual treatises that contradict the ruling elites and their spokespeople or reveal completely different backgrounds and contexts are labelled as conspiracy theories, conspiracy narratives or conspiracy myths ("disinformation", "hate speech"...) and so on. It does not matter how detailed, verifiable and well-founded this position is put forward.

For many of these controversial topics, which are dismissed by the Western media or leading politicians as conspiracy narratives, there are books with references and a systematic structure that meet scientific standards or have been written by experts. Detailed treatises in digital media, magazines, books and lectures are also increasingly being labelled with derogatory terms.
These are mostly topics from politics, society, power and domination structures and the economy. This form of marginalisation promotes the often lamented division of society.

In the case of the corona pandemic and the controversy surrounding vaccination, it is clear that, in a similar way, scientific observations and research are declared to be "correct" and "recognised" science on the one hand, while other professionally qualified scientific knowledge and explanations are dismissed as false, "fake news" or "conspiracy theory" and scientists are discredited in this way. It is even censored or criminalised. We are familiar with similar behaviour in the debate about climate change and its causes. An open approach to science and freedom of research looks different. Not to mention freedom of opinion or freedom of information. The systematic denigration of statements and people using such terms is in stark contrast to constitutional fundamental rights - indeed, it contradicts the principles of the rule of law.

Today, "conspiracy theory" is used almost exclusively as a pejorative term and verbal defence against oppositional views and publications. And as I said, even dissenting findings or explanations in specialised scientific fields can be seen as opposition. In the so-called Western world, we are experiencing less and less of an objective debate with opposition; instead, opposition is met with the will to destroy.

In this way, leading elites and their mouthpieces want to delegitimise and denigrate criticism of themselves in order to avoid a serious, substantive debate. It is naturally assumed that what is labelled a conspiracy theory has no truth content whatsoever and is to be regarded as fundamentally false.

The censorship scissors for thoughts and topics must be implanted in people's minds. This is what "fighting words" are for.
From time to time, the term "alternative truth" is used to dismiss and discredit views or reasoned representations.
These attributions, particularly in Germany, have been supplemented for several years by the discussion about "fake news", "hate speech" and "disinformation", whereby these terms are mixed together at will. Anything that contradicts the world view conveyed by state-run public media and leading party politicians is condemned and devalued. In addition, there are new laws from the EU and the state that serve as measures against the expression of opinions. State-organised and financed censorship forces are scouring certain social media. However, if you look at what is declared as "hate speech", for example, you realise that in many cases it is not really about hate messages, but about oppositional criticism or expressions of opinion that are displeasing to leading politicians and the media close to them.

"They don't ban hate speech. They ban the speech they hate."

• Author not known. This quote, which probably originates from a US Twitter comment, is often attributed to Elon Musk. Musk does not distance himself from the content of the statement, but is not the author. The original is said to read: "They don't ban hate speech; they ban speech they hate."

Another fighting term, mainly in Germany, has long been "right-wing" and various associations with it. For decades, everything that can be remotely described as politically right-wing has been deliberately demonised.

In the same breath, the outlawed conspiracy narrative (in Germany) is now often specifically labelled as "right-wing" or "right-wing extremist" at the same time. "Right-wing conspiracy theory" is now the oft-repeated term. Whether people with a right-wing political orientation are actually behind certain opinions or whether a right-wing orientation is assumed is recognisably irrelevant(1).
Two words declared to be negative are merged into one term. And makes it seem superfluous to deal objectively with content and arguments.

As opposition and dissent to the mainstream in politics and the media has increasingly been labelled as "right-wing" or "extreme right-wing" and even indiscriminately as "Nazi" in recent years, the aim is to create a subtle mental link between the "right-wing", which has been demonised for decades, and the "conspiracy believers". This easy-to-see-through method of denigration and marginalisation really does catch on with a large number of unsuspecting citizens.

(1) For example, countless demonstrations against the CORONA measures took place in Germany in 2020 and 2021. These protective measures were seen by many citizens as well as lawyers, doctors and other experts as a disproportionate restriction of fundamental rights. A colourful mixture of people took part in these demonstrations, as I was able to see for myself in several cases. Conversations with participants have clearly shown that this is not about "right" or "left", but about the cause itself - about resistance to new laws and government measures that undermine fundamental rights. Here, people demonstrated side by side regardless of their political orientation. Citizens with different voting behaviour and many who were previously apolitical have come together. The media and leading German politicians generalised that these demonstrators were right-wing and against the state.

What favours the emergence of conspiracy theories

When so-called conspiracy theories arise, the primary cause is deep-seated mistrust. Mistrust of politics, state institutions, the media and various lobby groups is also fuelled by such lies, which have a lasting effect over generations. Constructing conspiracy lies has always been a means of US policy, especially in foreign and war policy. This will be discussed in detail in Part 2 of this paper. Originally, this did not come from the population, but was devised and spread by governments, state agencies or large media organisations.

An increasingly growing proportion of the US population is no longer prepared to accept emotionalised propaganda lies from its government apparatus unquestioningly. What applies to US citizens in this respect is increasingly true for people in almost all countries of the Western world: a great many people trust the US government, presidents, government advisors, US intelligence agencies, think tanks and large corporations with everything, but little that is good. Instead, they are associated with lies, deviousness, war, destruction, arbitrariness, cold-heartedness and calculation, contempt for humanity and moral depravity.
These harsh but now widespread views of the USA and its leadership are the result of previous actions.
It is therefore hardly surprising that many of the various "conspiracy theories" and expressions of mistrust circulating around the world are linked to the USA and its ruling elites.

For some years now, there has been a loss of trust and rejection not only towards the leadership of the USA. In almost all Western countries, mistrust and rejection of their leadership elites is on the rise. This has already been explained here using Germany as an example. This is being countered with further restrictions on critical citizens. Social division is also increasing.

Some examples should in part 2explain in a comprehensible way how mistrust has arisen and why it is apparently on the rise.

Part 3 will also be online shortly.