The Stoa and the significance of Stoic philosophy for Western history and culture

Today we know the term "stoic calm" , "stoic serenity" or some are called "Stoic" labelled.
The term is usually used to describe an equanimous and tolerant person or simply someone with a thick skin who does not show emotions and inner feelings.
But there is much more behind these terms.

General information on STOA

The term STOA is derived from a public building that stood on a market square in ancient Athens. This was known as the "STOA POIKILE" - colourful columned hall. Founded there Zenon from Kition (kition - a place on Cyprus) founded his philisophical school, which took its name from the building in which Zenon met with his students.
Zeno the Stoicas he is also known, came from the periphery of the Greek region and was probably of Greek-Oriental descent. As far as is known, Zenon led an eventful life as a merchant until he came to Athens. He is said to have been shipwrecked with his merchant ship and lost all his possessions. According to tradition, Zenon later declared that this loss was the best thing that happened to him in his life.
Zeno lived between 340 and 260 BC (according to other sources probably 333 - 264 BC).

The Stoic doctrine is divided into three main phases in antiquity:

• The older Stoa, from Zeno's founding of the school in Athens
  from about 300 BC.
• The middle Stoa or middle school, which is a comparatively short epoch. It is represented by Panaitios of Rhodeswho headed the school from 129 - 109 BC and was probably the last official head of the school in Athens, and furthermore Poseidonios of Apameiawho lived from 135 - 51 BC (Apameia is a city in later Syria).
• The younger Stoa, or younger school, has now been replaced by Romansn is represented. At the beginning of this epoch Marcus Tullius Cicero and Cato the Younger and then the famous writer, philosopher, state ethicist and civil servant Lucius Annaeus Senecaborn at the beginning of our era in Cordoba.
  The end of the Stoic doctrine in antiquity is marked
  through the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121 – 180).

The Roman period of Stoic philosophy can be further divided into two main eras: the republican and the imperial. Whereby the Stoics Cicero and Cato the Younger play a key role in the fight to preserve the Republic and against the autocracy of Gaius Julius Caesar (around 45 BC). However, they remained unsuccessful.

Added to this is the Neo-Nazism. This is how Stoicism is taught in Central Europe today since the Renaissance is called. With this modern formulation, Stoicism has gained great significance in many ways in modern times.

The beginning: The 4th century BC - a time of upheaval in Greece

Athens shook off the rule of Sparta around 370 BC and subsequently experienced an economic boom, until the city and its allies increasingly came under the influence of Macedonia from 338 BC and finally lost its democracy and increasingly fell under foreign rule. Athens was later conquered by the Romans in 86 BC and experienced a period of decline under Emperor Hadrian a new bloom.
This time of change, instability and uncertainty called for new philosophical ideas by reflecting on the permanently changed external situation. In addition, influences from other cultures found their way into the world of Greek philosophy.

The following were created at this time Three new major schools and teachings: the Stoic, the Epicurean and the Scepticism. They showed parallels and were similar in their questions and objectives, but the answers to the questions of the time and the constructive approach differed significantly in some cases.

The Epicurean are named after the Athenian Epicurusthe founder of their view. For the Epicureans, ethics is also based on physics and logic. Epicurus holds the view that the gods are of little importance and he denies any interaction between gods and humans. In his view, he virtually banishes the gods from human life and teaches a separation of the spheres and an insight based on science.
As far as ethics and attitudes to politics are concerned, he sees a withdrawal from political events as desirable and a turn towards the private sphere and sociability, enjoyment and sensual pleasure as the goal, as well as the achievement of bliss through a restrained turn towards sensual pleasures.

The Sceptics took a different path than the "doubters". They quarrelled with almost all existing philosophical schools of thought and even doubted that knowledge could be attained at all or that it was possible to recognise the truth.
But its aim is also to use natural science, logic and epistemology to achieve equanimity and a serene, unshakeable state of mind.
In the middle period (3rd and 2nd centuries BC) of its existence, the Platonic Academy was the headquarters of scepticism.

Basic characteristics and origins of Stoicism

The basis for the development of the Stoicism applies the Cynic doctrine (Origin of the terms "cynic" and "cynicism" used today). The Cynics are regarded as one of several emerging branches of the Socratics and are carried on by various eccentric personalities. A philosophical "school" in the sense that was common in Greece at this time cannot be assumed.
Extreme Modesty, Lack of need and Abstinence are characteristics of the ethics and lifestyle of the Cynics. Everything is simple and therefore coarse, even the unpolished, unadorned speeches of the Cynics. As they do not practise a profession, the Cynics have no possessions and do not value them. They also reject many other values and concepts of value as meaningless. A person's existence and (real) wealth are measured by their Spirit, Knowledge and Wisdom.

In Athens, Zeno initially had close contact with the Cynic Krates (an eccentric similar to Diogenes in the barrel - a contemporary of Aristotle and Alexander the Great). In addition to the Cynic teachings, Zeno studied other philosophers and then founded his own school in the Stoa. This was close to Cynic teaching, but the extremes of the Cynic attitude to life were smoothed out to a certain extent. There are also elements of Heraclitus in it. Heraclitus the Dark, who is said to have lived as a hermit in the mountains in his old age, was on the trail of the Logos and the laws and is regarded as a developer of dialectical thinking. Dialectics: The art of providing evidence. As far as logic is concerned, the Stoics built on the foundations laid by Aristotle.

Zeno's teaching offered a life orientation, a programme, for a broader mass of people. The ultimate goal here is the Ethics as a guide to life. The path to this led via physics (natural science, the study of matter) and the Logic as a teaching of the Rhetoric (monological), the dialectical speech (dialogue), argumentation and astute thinking and the perfection of this (through reason).

The Stoics also assume that the mind is a "tabula rasa" at birth, i.e. a blank, blank page, as we would say today.

The physics of the Stoics only recognises corporeal things of different natures and is materialistic. The idea of primordial fire, which is inherent in the world as a law, is also anchored in materialism. Heraclitus based on. A force acting from within as part of the material is given different names - logos, nous, soul, necessity, providence - but can also be described as divine or even God (Zeus). The divine principle or divine reason permeates the cosmos.
The teaching is profound pantheistic. (->All matter (hyle) is animated by divine reason (logos)).

The core of ethics:
The Human is emphasised as rational being denotes. Reason and the possibility of recognising divine laws and consciously collecting Experiencen and their evaluation (empirical perspective) is a basis of this ethic.
Furthermore, in the Stoic doctrine there are causal chains that link all events together, everything belongs together, nothing of human action is exempt from this.
The fate of the individual is bound to the causal chains and one should not try to avert providence.

Stoic ethics as a way of life

As rational beings, humans should live according to their nature and rationally. This is the central virtue that also promises happiness.
The opposite wickedness consists in a non-rational life, against human nature, and it is therefore unvirtuous.

Things that are of value to most people count for nothing to the Stoic: health, wealth, possessions, recognition or illness, poverty, dishonour, servitude, old age and death - these conditions and circumstances are meaningless and neutral to the Stoic.

For the Stoic, it is important to recognise what is natural and virtuous and what is bad or indifferent. Affects - instincts and passions - prevent us from recognising this or living accordingly. The Affects confuse reasonThey obscure our view of what is right and essential, and make us believe that bad or indifferent things are good or Important and let us pursue the wrong thing.

So the ongoing Fighting the emotions. Once these have been conquered and overcome, we have reached our goal, virtueis reached. If the soul is then free of passions, the stoic reaches the state of Dispassion - the apatheia (apathy). This then gives people freedom, because they are wise and recognise what is right and wrong and can act accordingly.

Apathy (not to be confused with apathy and indifferent passivity), Self-sufficiency (self-sufficiency) and Ataraxia (steadfastness) were the goals that the Stoic endeavoured to achieve.

Up to this point, the relationship with Cynic ethics is recognisable. Now, however, the Stoa, especially the younger Stoa, which was influenced by Rome, goes further and views man as part of society. The judgement of things is differentiated anew and in some cases evaluated differently.
Marriage, Family and State are now given a certain value and now find justification before the stoic - justified on the basis of necessity.

The Cynic doctrine and also partly the early Stoic doctrine were basically egoistic and self-centred (and according to today's view also in parts against the nature of man, perhaps a certain contradiction was soon similarly recognised at that time ...?)
But a cosmopolitan orientation and the disregard for class boundaries were already characteristic of the original Stoa.

In contrast to the Cynics, the Stoics now claim that Social demands: Justice and Love of humanity. In doing so, they laid the foundations for the ideas of humanism in antiquity. They knew No professional or national boundaries; they close free and slave a. This new awareness was probably given an additional boost by contact with the comprehensive Roman state structure. Through expansion, the Roman Empire included other peoples - forcibly through colonisation - and made some of them Roman citizens. One can assume an interaction between the Roman spirit and self-image and, on the other hand, the Stoic view. The Stoic doctrine in turn later gained influence on Roman politics and legislation.
Fundamental Roman values, such as the dignity of the individual (for citizens), unconditional Duty fulfilment and Disciplined behaviour correspond to the Stoic doctrine. The two complemented each other and soon became inseparable.

Important figures of the Stoa

In addition to the founder Zenonalso included Kleanthes and Chrysippos the old school to.
Panaitios and Poseidonis belonged to the middle school on. The continuity of the Attic school (era in Athens) presumably ended with them after around 200 years.

Panaitios modified the Stoic doctrine and, alongside the Roman CICERO, paved the way for it in the Roman world (via the political contact with Scipian Aemilianus). By softening the strict control of the emotions - control of reason instead of strict suppression of the instincts - and further shaping and refining the doctrine towards an individual differentiation of duties according to type and scope, it became more acceptable to the Roman upper class.

Posaidonis is considered one of the last important Greek explorers and polymaths after Aristotle. He further developed the loosening and refinement of Stoic doctrine. Poseidonios, who was a pupil of Panaitios in Athens, ultimately founded on Rhodes his own philosophy schoolwhere also Cicero came to him to attend his lectures. And Cicero, in turn, made a name for himself with his work "De officiis" for the fact that Panaitios' doctrine of duties was handed down.

Marcus Tullius Cicerowas a well-known Roman orator, jurist, important statesman, writer and philosopher. Cicero was born in 106 BC in Arpinum; he died in 43 BC near Formiae. He was famous when he held the consulship from 63 BC. Cicero resolutely defended the Republic against conspiracies and corruption and received at least one high honour. Cicero was outstanding as an orator and stylistically as a writer of books and letters and was a celebrity. He stood on the side of the Republicans against the Caesar's claims to power. After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, Cicero fled because he feared that he would be suspected of being associated with the conspiracy against Caesar. He was killed while on the run.
Cicero translated the works of Greek philosophers into Latin and thus made them accessible to the Romans. He studied the Stoics intensively and wrote books on their teachings, such as "Paradoxa Stoicorum". In his writings, he also made provocative references to Cato the Younger.

Cato the Younger (CATO Uticensis) was a Roman soldier, statesman, jurist and philosopher and a well-known follower of the Stoic doctrine. He lived from 95 to 45 BC and was Caesar's adversary. During the civil war, Cato and his supporters tried in vain to prevent Caesar from abolishing the republic and seizing power in the empire as sole ruler. Cato was known for his advocacy of virtue, steadfastness, honour and above all incorruptibility. He died by his own hand in North Africa after being defeated by Caesar's army. Like Cicero, he is still regarded as a role model today. More about Cato can be found here (in German).

The Stoa underwent significant change and further development in the third period, in the Roman Empire. The ethical doctrine was of particular interest here. It was developed by, among others Lucius Annaeus Senecathe former slaves Epictetus (about 50 to 130) and by Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121 to 180).

The Stoics were subject to changing acceptance or rejection depending on the ruler. Seneca experienced these changes in his life. He had to live in exile in Corsica for eight years (from 41). He had previously worked as a civil servant. When Agrippina the Younger him as an educator and teacher for her 12-year-old son Nero Seneca was called back.
Although Seneca went to great lengths in this task to convince the future ruler of the Stoic doctrine, advocating the values of gentleness and kindness and writing an extensive memorandum for him, Nero did not allow himself to be taken in by it.

From 54 to 62, Seneca remained at the imperial court and held an influential position. He wrote many more widely read works.
When in the year 65 a Conspiracy against Emperor Nero was uncovered, Seneca was suspected of involvement and sentenced to take his own life.

"The last day of your life, which you dread so much, is the birthday of eternity. Throw off all your burdens! Why the hesitation? Did you not once leave the body that hid you from the world and see the light of day? Are you hesitating and unwilling? Then, too, your mother brought you to the light with great suffering. Do you sigh and cry? So do the newborns."

From the Persecution by Nero other Stoics were also affected, at least one was executed, Musonius was banished to an Aegean island, where he had many listeners and followers, including the former slave Epictetus. He later founded a school in Nicopolis.
He was concerned with the topic of freedom, but did not think about the abolition of slavery. Rather, he turned to the strict old Stoa and developed thoughts on the immutability and influenceability of life's circumstances.

Stoics at the imperial court in Rome again

The tide turned in favour of the Stoics at the imperial palace, and Epictetus enjoyed a good reputation with Emperor Hadrian. Emperor Hadrian arranged for his successor, Antoninus, to have the young Marcus Aurelius and gave him a good upbringing.
The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius was born in 121, became emperor in 161 and died of the plague in March 180 in Vindobona, today's Vienna.
As a young pretender to the throne, Marcus Aurelius had the opportunity to listen to a lecture by the Greek Stoic Apollonius in Rome. Marcus Aurelius, who had already learnt the principles of Stoicism during his upbringing, absorbed the content and remained faithful to the Stoic doctrine throughout his life. He applied them consistently in his personal life as well as in his role as a statesman and general. His time as emperor was characterised by great unrest, uprisings, wars, the flooding of the Tiber and epidemics of disease in the Roman Empire.

He sees his task as given to him by fate and endeavours to fulfil it to the best of his ability and meet his obligations. He saw himself as serving the state and the community. Arrogance, overconfidence and the pursuit of personal advantage or wealth are vices to which he never succumbs. He lived simply and often with the soldiers in the field.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius clearly demonstrates the Stoic ethos of community spirit in the following lines in which he admonishes himself:
"Work! But not like an unhappy person or like someone who wants to be admired or pitied. Work or rest as is best for the community."

The egotistical self-denial of the Cynics gave way here to self-sacrifice and devotion to the community. At an advanced age, he himself wrote important Stoic writings. Emperor Aurelius is regarded as the last creative representative of the Stoics.

The Stoic doctrine according to Marcus Aurelius - Christianity

After Marcus Aurelius, an independent Stoic doctrine loses importance, but it continues to have an effect in the fusion with the emerging Christianity - a religion in its origins and a philosophical doctrine that are made for each other.

There are parallels that call for a connection:

• The Stoic ethos, which calls for love and respect among people, regardless of class or ethnicity, corresponds to Christian teaching.
• The Stoics see the whole world as being animated by a higher being, a personifying force. In this way, they are in favour of a monotheistic religion.
• They demand a strict and simple way of life, bound to customs, morals and a disregard for material goods. In the New Testament and the ideals that are conveyed.
• The polar distinction between good and bad, virtuous behaviour and wrong behaviour corresponds to Stoic and Christian distinctions.

However, this new Christian faith from the Roman province was not initially welcomed in Rome, neither by Marcus Aurelius nor by other Stoics. Marcus Aurelius fought against the early Christians; the Stoics did not want to forfeit the existing religious order and culture.
Marcus Aurelius died; the Stoics were unable to stop the development and lost importance. Christianity gained strength against various odds and despite initial, brutal persecution and adopted the Stoic teachings. Seneca's writings delighted the early Christians.

Stoicism in the modern age

It was not until the Renaissance that the Stoa celebrated a resurrection in the form of Neo-Stoicism. The important polymath Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (born around 1467 in Rotterdam and died in Basel in 1536) published an edition of Seneca's writings.

These also find favour with the reformers Luther (1) and Zwingli (2) and thus certainly influenced the development of Protestant doctrine, whose theology later helped Christianity to take a "reformist step backwards". Erasmus himself never joined the Lutheran movement and instead found himself in a theological dispute with Luther.

In Erasmus' philosophical debate with the Stoa, the reformers rediscovered the rigour, simplicity and discipline of early Christianity, which Roman Catholic, Western European Christianity had long since lost. Over the centuries, the Roman Catholic Church and the papacy had not only disregarded the values and commandments of Christian teaching but, in the opinion of many learned Christians, had betrayed and perverted them. With the rediscovery of the ancient philosophy of the Stoa in the Renaissance, reform-minded and critical thinkers and scholars among Christian theologians found the origins of their faith and inspiration.

During the Reformation phase, the influence of the Stoa also found its way into Calvinism and Puritanism as well as other reformatory Christian movements. If one follows Max Weber (in "Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus" , from 1904), the Stoic doctrine even found its way into the foundations of the Central European work and economic mentality via the Calvinist work ethic and the general Protestant ethic and doctrine of duty. (3)

Stoicism also survived into modern times via a completely different route. Many European philosophers after the Renaissance were inspired by Seneca. The first to develop a neo-Stoicist movement was the Flame Justus Lipsius (1547 to 1606). He endeavoured to prove that Christianity and Stoicism were compatible.

Also Michel de Montaigne (1533 to 1592) refers to Plutarch and Seneca, later linking them to René Descartes (1596 to 1650) and Philip Melanchthon (1497 to 1560). Melanchthon was a reformist theologian and a close confidant and fellow campaigner of Martin Luther.

Stoicism also found its way into the work of the much-maligned Baruch Spinoza (4). Spinoza's writings in turn fascinated the German poets Lessing, Herder and Kant; Goethe, Schiller and Heinrich von Kleist were also inspired by Spinoza and other Stoic-influenced thinkers.

The European Enlightenment, which received significant impetus in France, was basically guided by Stoic thinking with its emphasis on reason and the doctrines of nature, although it tended to develop in a different direction of thought and action. Thinkers of this time also turned to a pantheistic view of the world, as is clearly recognisable in the works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

Recent German history and the Stoa

In Germany in particular, Stoic ethics had an impact from another angle. The Prussian state of the 18th and 19th centuries, with its foundation of values consisting of virtue, a code of loyalty and discipline and frugality, bears clear traits of Stoic thought, and not by chance: Frederick II. of Prussia, nicknamed "the Great" (who saw himself as "the supreme servant of the state"), modelled himself on the Stoics. Frederick II (born 1712, died 1786) described himself as a Stoic philosopher and passed on the corresponding ideals to his successors and to the officer cadets, who were required to read Seneca, Epictetus and Cicero.

Even the Father of Frederick the Greatwhich is known as "Soldier King" labelled Frederick William (1688 to 1740, king from 1713), was - also of his own accord - favoured a simple, unpretentious and frugal life and discipline from childhood. He was an extraordinary and difficult man who demanded self-discipline and rigour from himself and others.

At the age of 10, as crown prince, he was given Frederick William his first own country estate and hunting lodge, King Wusterhausen in Brandenburg (south of Berlin), as a gift from his father. He had the run-down property renovated and managed properly. He later slept there in a simple room on a cot. Meals were often held in the open air, much to the chagrin of the family and servants.

Pomp, splendour and pageantry were far from his mind. Elaborate court ceremonial was abolished under him and there was no large court household. Frugality, pragmatism and the expedient use of available resources were the top priority for the Prussian King Frederick William I. He took over from his father a state in a desolate state, in debt and embroiled in wars. Under Frederick William I, Prussia became a debt-free state with assets, a strong military, brisk building activity and development in many areas. Education was highly valued. In his opinion, labour and diligence were a matter of course for a monarch and he was regarded as the most industrious ruler in Europe. The Soldier King did not start a new war. The only military conflict was the successful Pomeranian campaign against Sweden in 1714, together with allies. This was more or less a continuation of the Great Northern War, which was already underway during his father's reign.

However, the king also demanded a lot from his people; his son Frederick often had to suffer under him. Tolerance in Prussia became widely known. Persecuted Protestants from other European states found refuge in Prussia, were able to settle there and were successfully integrated in large numbers. The Huguenots in particular, who were persecuted in France, found protection and a new home in Prussia. Frederick William was taught by a Huguenot teacher and received a Calvinist education.

His army and military equipment were the king's pride and joy. His respect for the military since childhood and his love for his excellently trained soldiers prevented him from recklessly waging war. Due to his war-shyness and the simple, unostentatious courtly life in Prussia, the king was to a certain extent an outsider among European rulers and nobles. The neo-Stoic writings from the Netherlands had already fallen on fertile ground with him.

His son, Frederick the GreatHe then fully embraced this philosophy and further developed the Stoic ideals for himself and his state. Religious and, for the time, relative ideological tolerance were further cultivated under him in Prussia. Frederick the Great is said to have coined the saying "Every man shall be blessed in his own way". Under him, torture was abolished as a method of interrogation in Prussia.

Through the influence that Prussia exerted on the development of Germany as a whole in the further course of history, Stoic philosophy had a decisive, indirect effect on Germany, the organisation of the state and the mentality in the German Empire, thus influencing Germany into the 20th century.

In addition to Stoicism, the Enlightenment also gained a reputation at the Prussian court, which had an influence on the reign of Frederick the Great. This will be discussed shortly in the Article on the rule of law and separation of powers, part 1 explained. (4)

In one way or another, Stoic philosophy also exerted an influence on rulers, education, thought and intellectual creativity in other countries. Particularly in France, in the course of the Enlightenment and the writings of the humanists, Stoic ideas found their way. They also had an impact in the Netherlands, as mentioned above.

What significance do Stoic thinking and the values of the Stoics still have today?

It can certainly be said that the philosophy of the Stoa produced one of the most influential and powerful schools of thought, life guidelines and teachings for European development.

Even today, Stoicism can still be helpful and point the way forward for us modern people. It is striking how many websites, YouTube channels and various guides in numerous languages make direct reference to Stoic philosophy. Many claim that modernised Stoicism provides answers to the questions of our time and a framework for modern living.

In fact, many people around the world are looking for guidelines in life in these times of industry, city life, information technology and digitalisation, consumerism, globalisation and impenetrable world politics. Today, as religions are losing importance in some cultural circles and society and politics are becoming unmanageable, many people are losing orientation for their own lives. In their search, people come across the Stoa and its thinkers and can therefore recognise the guidelines in today's world that are both helpful and universal.

The search for simplicity and modesty is also being cultivated in Western and (previously) affluent countries. Some come from the rethinking of abundance and the desire to avoid waste to the questions of simplification. Others come from the need to lead a simple lifestyle because economic conditions - currency devaluation and price increases, scarce living space and others - mean that savings and simplification are necessary. However, these questions and constraints can also be met with constructive wisdom and philosophical reflection, with a system of thought as a basis. Stoic thinking and feeling also offer a framework for modern people.

Footnotes:

1. Martin Luther. Germany, born 10 November 1483 in Eisleben and died 18 February 1546; German Augustinian monk and professor of theology; best-known "church reformer" and founder of the Lutheran-Protestant Church. With his translation of the BIBLE into German, he was the first to create a standardised German and thus laid the foundation for modern High German. The commonly used description of Martin Luther as a reformer is basically misleading, because he was not able to reform the existing Roman Church, but instead ultimately caused what he was trying to prevent: he instigated the schism in the church and became the founder of a new Christian denomination. This later became the cause of terrible religious wars and provoked long-lasting, cruel political and religious conflicts in Europe. This hit Germany particularly hard during the Thirty Years' War.
2. Huldrych Zwingli. Swiss, also Huldreich; his birth name was Ulrich Zwingli. Born on 1 January 1484, died on 11 October 1531, Zwingli was a Swiss scholar, theologian and the first important reformer in Switzerland. He learnt, studied and worked from his childhood and youth in Weesen (Canton of St. Gallen), Basel (1494), Bern and Vienna; from 1506 he was a pastor in Glarus. He was extremely pious and zealous in his ministries. In the years that followed, he distinguished himself as a reformer in disputes with the church and did not shy away from disputations when he was accused of heresy. In the 1520s, almost at the same time as Luther, he translated the BIBLE into Swiss chancery language in collaboration with other reformers. He also used parts of Luther's translation as a working basis for a time. The result was the "Zurich Bible". As in Germany with the Luther Bible, book printing in Switzerland also helped with the rapid dissemination of the Bible translated into the national language. Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli were at odds over their views on religious, social and political order. In 1529, Landgrave Philip of Hesse invited Zwingli and Luther to Marburg an der Lahn for a debate, during which Luther strongly emphasised his strict rejection of Zwingli's theses. Zwingli took part in a battle as a soldier in the field and was captured and killed by Catholic opponents near Kappel am Albis. He was followed by the well-known Swiss reformers Heinrich Bullinger, who is formally regarded as the founder of the Swiss Reformed Church, and the French-Swiss John Calvin (Jean Calvin, born Jehan (Jean) Cauvin). Further information under: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli
3. Max Weber Germany, born in Erfurt in 1864, studied law, history, economics and philosophy in Heidelberg, Berlin and Göttingen. In 1889 he wrote his doctoral thesis on the history of trading companies in the Middle Ages; in 1891 he wrote his habilitation thesis on Roman agricultural history. From 1894 full professor of economics in Freiburg and Heidelberg (from 1897). Weber was co-editor of the Archive for Social Science and Social Policy and editor of the Grundriß der Sozialökonomik. As an author, he made extensive contributions to the methodology of the social sciences, to the politics of the German Empire, to economics, political theory, religion, law and art from a universal historical perspective. After a long interruption due to illness, he finally became professor of social science, economic history and national economics in Munich a year before his death. He died in Munich in 1920.
4. The The spirit of enlightenment was highly respected in the Prussian royal family. This had a personal history:
   King Frederick II, the Greatused to work with the French philosopher Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire from 1736 until his death in 1778, characterised by occasional mutual admiration and inspiration, but also occasional disappointment and dislike. Voltaire spent extended periods of time at the court of the Prussian king. In this way, Enlightenment ideas and the ideals of the Humanism It entered German territory long before the French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte's destructive French military campaigns through Europe following the Revolution, which paradoxically led to the violent spread of these ideals with weapons, barbarism and destruction.